Teaching Foreign Language in Preschool - Peer Reviewed Articles

Introduction

In Poland, learning English language every bit a foreign language (EFL) combines sequential and subordinative acquisition (Kubiak, 2003), equally formal pedagogy begins relatively early at pre-schoolhouse entry (optionally and due to parental conclusion at iii years of age, obligatory at half-dozen years of age, into Reception Yr, cf. Regulation of the Minister of National Education, 2014 Journal of Laws, item 803). Thus, an EFL pedagogy begins before or simultaneously with literacy instruction in L1. This educational situation creates an opportunity to examine the conquering of a new language arrangement in one case the learners have an already relatively extensive knowledge about linguistic communication as such (Kohnert et al., 2010), but may still use a native linguistic communication (L1) acquisition strategies for a foreign linguistic communication (FL) learning (Olpińska-Szkiełko, 2015).

Language development involves the learning of symbols and of rules that govern them, which is reflected in phonological, morphological-syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic skills (Krasowicz-Kupis, 2008). According to the core curriculum published by the Ministry building of National Education, children at schoolhouse entry (generally at vii years of age) should: be interested in and ready to read, write, and spell, listen to stories and fairy tales and talk over them, exist able to segment uncomplicated words into sounds and syllables, orally express their understanding of the world, recognize some letters and read curt words appearing in everyday activities, experiment with language, tell stories and answer questions, classify objects into categories based on their size, shape, usage (Regulation of the Government minister of National Educational activity, 2017 Journal of Laws, item 356, attachment No. 1). Thus, in Polish pre-schools (entry at 3 years of age, due to parental decision; obligatory at half dozen years of age), speaking skills and impress awareness are adult (Krasowicz-Kupis et al., 2015b), as a preparation for literacy instruction, which is based on an analytic-constructed didactics strategy (Awramiuk and Krasowicz-Kupis, 2014), combined with a global one (Jaszczyszyn, 2010).

This type of literacy pedagogy is adjusted to the characteristics of Shine language. Polish orthography, as compared to English language, is more transparent, regular, and consistent in its grapheme-phoneme correspondence (Awramiuk and Krasowicz-Kupis, 2014). Though both languages follow the Subject – Verb – Object pattern in affirmative sentences, Polish syntax is more flexible. In fact, the aforementioned give-and-take order is only preferable, not mandatory, as a syntactic function of a word is indicated by its morphology (suffixes and inflections: coast and conjugation) (Polański and Nowak, 2011). In Smooth, in that location are no articles, no inversion to formulate questions, unsaid discipline may be used, and words are, on average, longer than English ones (Jaskulska and Łockiewicz, 2017).

The pre-school environs is an artificial status for learning a FL in a culturally influenced social context. This is especially conspicuous in Poland, which is a largely monolingual state (National Census of Population and Housing, and Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2011). Thus, the learners have limited opportunities to communicate in a FL outside school, where, in add-on, a FL exposure is limited to a FL class, while all other didactics and informal advice is conducted in Polish. Kersten and Rhode (2013) suggest that a pre-school routine should provide the about natural weather, as this approach improves learning achievements. Moreover, the aims of pedagogy should include the development of positive motivation, exposure to foreign spoken language, and creating bases for systematic linguistic work (Komorowska, 2009). The cadre curriculum for preschools published past the Ministry of National Teaching in Poland states that an aim of pre-school education is to ready children to use a mod FL through, among others, arousing language awareness and cultural sensitivity while playing games. Preschoolers at school entry should participate in plays, understand and follow unproblematic instructions, repeat and sing nursery rhymes, sympathise the general point of short stories if their telling/reading by a instructor is accompanied with pictures, gestures, etc. Teachers should instruct children in a FL while at play, read them stories, apply plant nursery rhymes, poems, songs, and audio–visual materials in a FL, to provide auditory, pre-literacy contact with a FL in different everyday situations (Regulation of the Minister of National Instruction, 2017 Journal of Laws, item 356, attachment No. 1). Thus, teaching strategies are based on interactive plays (Komorowska, 2005), and implicit, fun-focused techniques (Aguirre et al., 2016). As a event, the young learners should demonstrate specific skills of understanding commands, using unproblematic phrases and plant nursery rhymes, and agreement the context of stories (Regulation of the Minister of National Didactics, 2017 Periodical of Laws, item 356, zipper No. 1). Suggested methods of instruction encourage the EFL pre-schoolhouse teachers to provide the young learners with an intensive contact with a FL, without the demand for immediate oral production by the students (Kondrat, 2015). Kondrat (2015) suggests that all instructions should be given in English, children should learn by repeating, and through participation in science and art projects, using Content and Language Integrated Learning approach.

An early introduction of EFL didactics stems from evidence for its effectiveness. Olpińska-Szkiełko (2015) claims that if a FL acquisition begins in preschool, when young learners are particularly linguistically sensitive, it allows for a college FL competence in time to come.

Co-ordinate to Cummins (1991), a second language (L2) learning depends on both the linguistic exposure quality and quantity and a learner'due south aptitude. According to the linguistic interdependence theory, the evolution of L2 competence stems from the competence already developed in the first language (L1) at the fourth dimension when L2 exposure begins (Cummins, 1979). Similarly, The Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis states that L1 skills provide the basic foundation for learning a FL (Ganschow and Sparks, 2000), phonological competence in particular (Sparks et al., 2012).

The predictive role of L1 phonological processing skills at a pre-literacy phase for EFL achievement has been reported in few studies. Phonological sensation allows to differentiate and manipulate phonological elements (Melby-Lervag et al., 2012). Children at showtime dispense smaller, and then larger phonological elements, which is influenced past schooling (Lipowska, 2001; Melby-Lervag et al., 2012). Syllable and intrasyllabic chemical element awareness precedes alphabetic character identification (Awramiuk and Krasowicz-Kupis, 2014), while phonological sensitivity and letter cognition reciprocally contribute to the development of one another prior to formal reading instruction (Burgess and Lonigan, 1998). In 5-year erstwhile Chinese children, syllable awareness predicted word reading at ages eight and 10 (Pan et al., 2011), and in 5–6-year old Norwegian native speakers phonological sensation predicted spelling, word reading, and translation at age 11 (Helland and Morken, 2016) in learning EFL. In a chip older 6-year onetime English language native speakers, at an early literacy stage, reading readiness (as measured with, east.g., phonological sensation tasks: rhyming and alphabetic character-sound relationships) predicted L2 (Spanish, French, and German) proficiency in Year x (Sparks et al., 2006). These studies outlined the importance of the identification of early predictors of a FL; they, even so, measured the actual FL proficiency at a later stage of education, when the learners had already received literacy instruction, not the relationship between these early predictors and FL oracy skills in preschool. We intended to add to the existing literature by providing a simultaneous assessment of phonological processing in L1 and EFL skills before the formal literacy teaching began.

The aim of our study was to assess the early on predictors of learning EFL in preschool students who had non still started formal literacy instruction and to characterize the level of their oral receptive and active EFL skills. We causeless that phonological processing and literacy skills, specifically alphabetic character identification in L1, would be linked to the development also in FL oral language skills, following the line of thought in Sparks et al. (2006). We besides aimed to examine how the young learners reply to the current pedagogy methodology, by the description and analysis of their bodily operation, as compared with the expected one, outlined in the cadre curriculum. A unique grouping of participants took office in our written report: preschoolers who have EFL classes in a monolingual country. We decided to examine such a young group, as, according to a new Smoothen legislation, English education will be obligatory in all kindergartens. Moreover, Sparks et al. (2006) reported, L1 predictors of students' oral L2 skills modify over time. Therefore, we decided to examine both the L1 predictors and the oral L2 skills at pre-school age. Equally non-verbal IQ and age of L2 conquering are sometimes included equally moderators in L2 acquisition studies (cf. a meta-analysis by Melby-Lervåg and Lervåg, 2011), we decided to command for these variables also in a EFL written report.

To our knowledge, our report is a kickoff attempt to assess the results of a pre-school curriculum for EFL in Poland using FL skill's measures consequent with the curriculum.

Materials and Methods

Materials

(ane) Raven's Colored Progressive Matrices – a Shine adaptation (Szustrowa and Jaworowska, 2003) – assesses the level of not-exact intelligence. Reliability for iv;5 – 4;11 years onetime children: r _tt = 0.75, SEM = 1.87. The validity correlation with WISC exam for 7–nine years old children: r = 0.48–0.57. The exam was administered in Polish.

(2) Letter Naming Test from IBE Reading Tests Battery BTCZ IBE (Krasowicz-Kupis et al., 2015a) – assesses Smoothen alphabet knowledge. Children proper name letters printed on a board. Score was i bespeak for every correct answer, Min = 0, Max = 32. Reliability for v;half dozen – five;11 years old children: r_tt = 0.96, SEM = 0.37. The validity correlation (Spearman's rho) with Vocabulary Test for Children (Koć-Januchta, 2013): r = 0.54. The examination was administered in Polish. We decided to utilise this examination even though formal literacy instruction does not take place in Polish preschools. Still, some children are even so informally instructed, and half dozen-twelvemonth-olds endeavor to refer letters to sounds (Awramiuk and Krasowicz-Kupis, 2014).

(3) Phonological Tests Battery BTF IBE (Krasowicz-Kupis et al., 2015c) – assess phonological sensation skills. Score was i signal for every right answer. Discontinuation rule: five consecutive errors and/or lack of answer, with the exception of a Phonemic hearing task: no discontinuation dominion. We administered the following tasks:

(a)Phonemic hearing (based on non-words) – minimal pairs comparison (Max = 25 points).

(b)Alliterations – non-words – comparison of two non-words starting with the same/different letter (Max = xvi points).

(c)Rhymes – recognition, words – identification of a give-and-take that does not rhyme with two other rhyming words from a set of three. An auxiliary pictorial material was used (Max = 12 points).

(d)Syllables – blending, non-words – repetition of a heard non-word segmented into syllables (Max = ten points).

In calculations, we used a total composite score tapping phonological awareness (Max = 63 points. Reliability for 5;half-dozen – 5;xi years onetime children: r _tt = 0.88, SEM = 0.72. The validity correlation (Spearman's rho) with Vocabulary Exam for Children (Koć-Januchta, 2013): from r = 0.42 to r = 0.49. The test was administered in Polish.

(4) English Knowledge Examination – Łockiewicz, not publishedⁱ. Score was i point for every correct respond; there were no discontinuation rules. The test was administered generally in English. The tasks were based on the core curriculum skills for kindergartens as outlined by the Ministry of National Pedagogy in Poland, and included (the researcher'southward questions and instructions are marked with italics):

(a)  A greeting: a child had to answer to a greeting (a greeting: Hullo), introduce themselves (a question: What is your name?), and give their historic period (a question: How old are you?) (Max = iii points).

(b)  Color recognition: indicating the colors named by the researcher, eastward.g., Indicate to ruby-red (pink, yellow) (Max = 3 points)².

(c)  Color naming: naming the colors (greenish, white, blueish) pointed to by the researcher (a question: What color is this?) (Max = 3 points) (see footnote text two).

(d)  Animal naming: naming the animals (a dog, a bird, a bear) pointed to by the researcher (a question: What is information technology?) (Max = 3 points) (see footnote text ii).

(eastward)  Phrase repetition: repeating three phrases (a big moo-cow, an old human, a red car) said by the researcher (an education: Repeat) (Max = 3 points).

(f)  Following teaching: drawing an apple tree (an instruction: Draw an apple tree) (Max = i betoken). The children were given a paper and a pencil to complete the task.

(g)  A nursery rhyme i. repetition: The researcher sung a pop plant nursery rhyme The wheels on the autobus. The kid had to echo the unmarried lines recited by the researcher (Max = 7 points), 2. comprehension: The child had to answer the questions (questions: What is the song about?, What exercise the wheels practice?, How long do the wheels become?) most the plant nursery rhyme (Max = 3 points). The comprehension questions were asked first in English language, then, if a child did not answer, in Polish. Both answers in English language and in Polish were accepted, if correct semantically. No pictorial auxiliary material was used, though gestures were (e.g., circling moves to imitate wheels).

In calculations, we used a total composite score tapping the knowledge of English (Max = 26 points). All tasks are based on oral linguistic communication skills, and supported with pictorial material, as the preschoolers had not yet started formal literacy education, even in their NL, according to the country-wide core curriculum. Reliability: r _tt = 0.89, SEM = ane.22. The correlations (Spearman'south rho) of subscales with total score were: greeting r = 0.658, color recognition r = 0.624, color naming r = 0.594, animal naming r = 0.756, phrase repetition r = 0.739, drawing (following instructions) r = 0.698, nursery rhyme – repetition r = 0.666, nursery rhyme – comprehension r = 0.717 (all p ≤ 0.001).

Participants

30 children aged between 41 (3 years v months) and 70 (v years ten months) months (M = 54.93, SD = 8.29), who attended two private and one land kindergarten, participated in the report. 19 (63%) girls and 11 (37%) boys were matched for gender [χ²(19) = 17.8, p = 0.536], historic period [Yard _girls = 54.42, SD _girls = 8.xiv, Yard _boys = 55.82, SD _boys = viii.88; t(28) = 0.44, p = 0.664], and intelligence [M _girls = 16.63, SD _girls = iii.91, M _boys = sixteen.64, SD _boys = 4.24; t(28) = 0.00, p = 0.998]. All children were native speakers of Polish, and attended the same, 30-min long classes taught by the same instructor. In 1 pre-schoolhouse, English was taught iii times a week, in two pre-schools – one time a week, in the morning. On boilerplate, the children had studied English for 2 years (K = 1.97, SD = one.41, Min = 1.00, Max = iii.00). All other activities, classes, and communication with teachers were conducted in Shine. No homework was assigned. However, 5 (16.67%) children attended individual English classes.

Procedure

All assessments were carried out past the 2d author at the pre-school. During the outset session, non-verbal intelligence and emerging literacy in Polish were assessed. During the second session, phonological sensation and knowledge of English were assessed. Each of the sessions lasted about 20 min. The protocol was canonical past the Ethics Board for Research Projects at the Institute of Psychology, University of Gdańsk, Poland. Prior to the study, written informed consent was obtained from the participants' parents. All children gave their oral consent to participate.

Results

English Oral Skills in Polish Preschoolers

The descriptive statistics for alphabetic character identification and phonological sensation in Polish, and English oral skills and phonological sensation skills in Polish pre-school children are presented in Table 1. The actual scores in English language oral skills of each child organized co-ordinate to age are presented in Figure ane. As literacy instruction had not however started in the pre-school, a small number of children actually knew any letters. For example, xv children (50%) received letter identification scores of 0 or ane, and 18 children (lx%) scores of 0, i, or two.

Tabular array 1. Letter identification, phonological sensation, not-exact IQ, and English oral skills in Shine pre-schoolhouse children – raw scores.

Figure 1. English oral skills according to historic period – the participants' individual scores.

In our study, the children'south age correlated positively and moderately with English oral skills, r = 0.394, p = 0.031. Appropriately, two oldest children scored the highest, 24 (92%) and 21 (81%) points, respectively. All the same, the 2 youngest children scored fourteen (54%) and 21 (81%) points, respectively. 3 (10%) children accomplished the highest score of 24 (92%) points, and iii (ten%) children achieved the lowest score of 2 (eight%) points. The scores distribution was negatively skewed, but close to normal, showing that the English test was non besides difficult for the children (Shapiro–Wilkes's coefficient was p = 0.040).

Below nosotros present the level of English language oral skills in relation to particular tasks.

Greeting: 13 children (43%) scored three points, i.e., they repeated Hi to the examiner's greeting, gave their proper name, and age, 9 (thirty%) – 2 points, and 8 (27%) – 1 bespeak. Specifically, 28 (93%) children responded: Hello, 1 (3%) –Dzień dobry (Good forenoon in Polish), and 1 (3%) gave no respond. ten (33%) children responded with a full sentence: My name is…, 11 (37%) gave simply their name, 4 (thirteen%) repeated the researcher's question, 5 (17%) gave no answer. 14 (47%) children gave their age, one (3%) gave their age in Smooth, 3 (ten%) repeated the researcher's question, 12 (40%) gave no answer or an incorrect answer (Effigy 2).

FIGURE 2. Shine pre-school children'southward answers to demographic questions in English.

Color recognition: 11 (37%) children scored 3 points, eleven (37%) – 2 points, half-dozen (20%) – 1 betoken, 2 (7%) – 0 points (Figure three). Specifically, 25 (83%) preschoolers recognized red color, 22 (73%) – pink, fifteen (50%) – yellow. i (3%), 3 (10%), and 4 (13%) children gave the incorrect names of colors, respectively.

FIGURE 3. Smooth pre-school children's color recognition and naming, and animal naming in English.

Color naming: seven (23%) children scored 3 points, 5 (17%) – 2 points, eight (27%) – 1 indicate, 10 (33%) – 0 points (Effigy three). Specifically, fourteen (47%) preschoolers named green colour, 9 (30%) – white, and xviii (60%) – blue. 2 (7%), 0 (0%), and 1 (3%) children gave the incorrect names of colors, respectively. A Wilcoxon Signed-Ranked test indicated that the children'due south passive colour vocabulary was improve than their active vocabulary, Z = 3.513, p ≤ 0.001, r = 0.46.

Animals naming: one (3%) kid scored 3 points, five children (17%) – ii points, x (33%) – 1 betoken, 14 (47%) – 0 points (Figure 3). 13 (43%) preschoolers named a dog (in addition, 1 (iii%) kid used a Polish discussion: pies), 3 (10%) – a bird, and vii (23%) – a conduct (including 5 (17%) who knew the specific species: a polar bear; in add-on, 1 (3%) child used a Polish word: niedźwiedź).

Phrase repetition task: xx (67%) children scored three points, iv (13%) – 2 points, 1 (three%) – i signal, 5 (17%) – 0 points (Figure 4). 25 (83%) preschoolers repeated a big cow [including, yet, ii (vii%) who omitted the indefinite article], 22 (76%) repeated an onetime human [including, all the same, 10 (35%) who either omitted or distorted the indefinite article], and 22 (73%) repeated a red automobile [including, yet, 5 (17%) who either omitted or distorted the indefinite commodity]. In total, approximately half (sixteen children) of 27 preschoolers who attempted the job (10%, i.due east., 3 children, failed to repeat fifty-fifty 1 phrase) either omitted, or distorted an article.

FIGURE 4. Polish pre-school children's phrase repetition and nursery rhyme repetition and comprehension in English.

Nursery rhyme repetition: 17 (57%) children repeated all 7 lines, two (7%) – 6 lines, 4 (13%) – 5 lines, ane (three%) – four lines, 1 (iii%) – 3 lines, and five (17%) – 0 lines. Nursery rhyme comprehension: ane (iii%) child scored 4 points, six (twenty%) children – three points, ii (7%) – ii points, ii (7%) – 1 point, 19 (63%) – 0 points (Figure 4).

Instruction following: 13 (43%) children drew an apple.

Early Native Linguistic communication Predictors of English as a Foreign Language Oral Skills

The Smooth language tests scores positively correlated moderately, strongly, and very strongly with English oral language skills. Letter identification correlated with age (r = 0.624, p ≤ 0.001), non-verbal IQ (r = 0.293, p = 0.058, statistical trend) and English skills, total score (r = 0.394, p = 0.031). Phonological awareness measured on Polish words and non-words correlated with historic period (r = 0.531, p = 0.003), non-verbal IQ (r = 0.379, p = 0.019) and English skills, total score (r = 0.559, p ≤ 0.001). English oral linguistic communication skills also correlated with age (r = 0.394, p = 0.031) and non-exact IQ (r = 0.518, p = 0.002).

Two hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted (Table 2). Historic period was entered equally an independent variable in Step 1, non-exact IQ was entered as an contained variable in Stride ii, and phonological sensation and letter of the alphabet identification skills in L1 were entered as an contained variable in Pace three, respectively.

TABLE ii. Results of two hierarchical regression analyses in which age, not-verbal IQ, and either phonological awareness or letter identification skills in L1 were regressed upon English oral linguistic communication skills of Polish pre-school children.

The showtime regression analysis for English oral linguistic communication skills showed that the contained variables: age, non-verbal IQ, and phonological awareness explained a total of 33% of the variance (F _three,26 = 5.66, p = 0.004). Significant independent variables in Step 3 were: not-exact IQ (β = 0.363, statistical trend) and phonological sensation based on material in Polish (β = 0.374). The 2d regression analysis showed that the independent variables: historic period, not-verbal IQ, and letter identification explained a total of 35% of the variance (F _3,26 = 6.29, p = 0.002). Significant independent variables in Footstep 3 were: non-verbal IQ (β = 0.035) and Polish letter identification (β = 0.424) (see Table 2). In both models, an credible prediction of age (cf. Step i in Table 2) disappeared when not-verbal IQ was added.

Give-and-take

In our written report, the children'southward age and not-verbal IQ correlated positively and moderately with English oral receptive and active skills, which is an expected event due to the learners' linguistic and cognitive development and causeless longer FL education. Still, the two youngest children scored 54 and 81% of all possible points, respectively. This result supports the notion of early commencement of a FL education. Hidaka et al. (2012) concluded that the neural foundation for a FL processing could exist established at a developmental stage (during iii–5 years of age) after some length of linguistic exposure. In their enquiry, the brain activeness in the bilateral frontal areas of 5-yr-old Japanese native speakers who had been exposed to English for ii years (exposure for at least 15 min per mean solar day in their first year, and approximately for four h per day in their second year of pre-schoolhouse educational activity) was higher for both their L1 and EFL, as compared with the activity for a rarely exposed L3 (Chinese), and consistent with that in Japanese adults. No difference in the encephalon activity for different languages was observed in 4-yr olds who had been exposed to English for 1 yr only. Conversely, Lecumberri and Gallardo (2003) reported that early on introduction to formal non-natural exposure to the FL does non facilitate FL audio acquisition, as students who started English instruction at age 8 were better in vowel and consonant discrimination than students who started at historic period four (similar to the age of our participants who started formal English pedagogy at the historic period of 3), later on identical number of didactics hours. This could exist due to cognitive maturity of the learners and dissimilar instruction methods used in school as compared with kindergarten. In our study, we did not assess audio discrimination.

In our study, despite attending the same preschools and having been taught by the same teachers, the participants differed essentially in their English oral skills. 10% of children scored 92% of all possible points, while some other 10% – only 8%. This disparity might be due to the features of the FL didactics (e.1000., the instructed vocabulary, different pedagogy methodology) and testing methods.

We found that phonological awareness in L1 and non-exact IQ (statistical trend) predicted English oral linguistic communication skills of Polish pre-schoolers learning EFL, but apart from EFL course by and large instructed in L1, when age and non-verbal IQ were controlled for. Moreover, we constitute that letter identification, limited to Polish alphabet, and non-exact IQ predicted English language oral linguistic communication skills of Shine pre-schoolers learning EFL, when age and non-verbal IQ were controlled for. These findings are consequent with a written report of a cross-linguistic transfer of oral linguistic communication and phonological awareness skills for learning English as L2, in a different context of partial immersion (schooling in L2 for at least four h per day) (Melby-Lervåg and Lervåg, 2011). It must be remembered, though, that L2 acquisition differs much from a FL acquisition, as the latter is characterized by much less exposure to linguistic content, less intensive FL instruction, and fewer options for daily, authentic, and meaningful advice practice. Nevertheless, our results suggest that the transfer happens also in example of a express exposure. L1 phonological sensation, especially syllable and phoneme awareness, predicted EFL decoding abilities in v–half-dozen-year old Korean children, who were instructed in English (Kang, 2012). Similarly, L1 phonological sensation of 5–6-year old pre-literacy, Yr 1 pre-school Norwegian students predicted their subsequent EFL spelling, word reading, and translation skills when 11-twelvemonth erstwhile (Helland and Morken, 2016). Thus, a cantankerous-linguistic transfer of phonological skills occurs in educational contexts of different FL exposure. However, Chinese tone awareness, but not rhyme awareness, predicted EFL word reading and phonological awareness in 4–6-yr quondam Cantonese native speakers, which suggests a different level of L1 phonological processing affect (Yeung and Chan, 2013). Therefore, more testify from other pairs of languages is needed.

The aforementioned findings are consequent with the Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis which states that L1 acquisition skills chronicle to FL learning skills, due to the phonological lawmaking (Sparks et al., 2012), and that skills in L1 provide the basic foundation for learning a FL (Ganschow and Sparks, 2000). In Petrus and Bogdanowicz'southward (2004), research an opposite direction of relation was examined: how EFL skills influence L1 acquisition. The authors found that 4–v-twelvemonth one-time Polish preschoolers who learned EFL scored higher in a task assessing L1 rhyme recognition (which is developed earlier in English than in Smooth (cf. Stanovich et al., 1984; Krasowicz-Kupis, 1999) equally compared with their peers who did not participate in an EFL class. However, both groups performed on a level in a L1 ingemination recognition job, and monolinguals outperformed bilinguals in L1 phoneme discrimination, which was interpreted as show for a phonological organisation common for both languages. Thus, a relation between phonological awareness in L1, FL, and L2 seems to be consistently evidenced in different pairs of languages, both for oral FL, every bit our study demonstrated, and for literacy skills.

All the same, we noticed that also non-verbal IQ predicted English language oral language skills in Polish pre-schoolers learning EFL. This is consistent with reports of the influence of non-verbal IQ on L2 learning aptitude (Grigorenko et al., 2000; Brooks et al., 2017).

Cenoz (2003) reported that afterwards 600 h of learning EFL, students who started learning English as L3 (L1 – Basque, L2 – Castilian) at age 4, were less proficient than those who started at age 8 and 11, likely due to cognitive maturity and less developed examination taking strategies.

Equally long-term retentivity is important in FL vocabulary conquering (Cheung, 1996; Masoura and Gathercole, 2005), the process of a FL teaching should involve systematic rehearsals and automatisation (Woźnicki and Zawadzka, 1981), which is an achievable task in young learners. Over 1/3 of our participants introduced themselves with a total judgement, which demonstrated that they had been taught to repeat/answer with unabridged phrases. Virtually half of the grouping gave their age and over 40% drew an apple post-obit the researcher'south instruction (this task had been included to bank check for comprehension without the demand for a verbal answer, which could take been more hard due to limited FL lexicon), which indicated comprehension. This finding was supported by an ascertainment that only in 3 cases did the preschoolers use a Smoothen give-and-take instead of an English one. However, each fourth dimension the response was semantically correct, demonstrating that the children understood the questions, but lacked vocabulary. Moreover, in the apple cartoon task it was possible for the participants to perform the task based on the lexical knowledge of the word apple only, without understanding the instruction itself, as they were handed a piece of paper and a pencil when instructed. Hence, the performance in this task might in fact add together more to the color/animal naming task lexical skill assessment, rather than teaching following. Moreover, the participants in our written report attempted to communicate in English, which suggests that even at a pre-school age they were able to differentiate between L1 and FL discourse. Cenoz (2003) reported that the early introduction of EFL (L3) at age iv is not associated with a higher level of language confusion, equally compared with the introduction at age 8 or 11, for case using the interlocutor'due south choice of language as a clue. In fact, Singleton (2003) claims that the bulk of L2 researchers concord that an early and, in particular, substantial exposure to L2 is related to a higher FL proficiency that a later one (starting in adolescence or subsequently), even though he does not support the idea of a disquisitional period in a FL acquisition. For instance, younger children are more likely to produce words based on fixed, learnt patterns, equally compared with older children, who more than often employ such strategies as over-generalization, reading pronunciation, or pronunciation guessing, due to cognitive maturation (Lecumberri and Gallardo, 2003). Bialystok and Hakuta (1999), as cited in: Marinova-Todd (2003) claim that young children'due south unstable, nonetheless developing knowledge of L1, interferes less with their learning of an L2.

In add-on, our finding corroborates suggestions for teachers to antipodal with young learners solely in L2 (cf. Kondrat, 2015). Olpińska-Szkiełko (2015) summarizes research reports that early on total immersion programs are near constructive (p. 207); withal, this would require for the children to attend an English language-language pre-school, which was not the example in our study, and is a rare situation in Polish educational arrangement. Our results show, withal, that pre-schoolhouse teachers may successfully conduct and look communication with their students in L2 only even if all of them share the aforementioned L1 that is used for other instruction and in everyday life.

We also found that the children's passive colour vocabulary was larger than their active vocabulary, equally they indicated more colors than they named, which is consequent with literature (Laufer, 1998). For all three colors, half or more than of the children recognized each of them individually, which suggest that the children had learnt color vocabulary. Interestingly, two out of three of these terms are much shorter in English, than in Polish (1-syllable carmine and pink, and two-syllable yellow, equally compared with corresponding 3-syllable czerwony and różowy, and ii-syllable żółty). They failed to name them, though, as merely less than 50% of the participants recalled 1 of 3 given colors. In this instance, all these terms are much shorter in English, than in Polish (1-syllable green, white, and blue, as compared with corresponding 3-syllable zielony, 2-syllable biały, and 3-syllable niebieski). Similarly, less than 50% of the participants named i of three given animals. Here the length of words was more similar (ane-syllable dog, bird, and bear, as compared with respective 1-syllable pies and ptak, and 2-syllable niedźwiedź, the latter discussion, however, has a much more complex syllable structure).

A majority of preschoolers repeated all or most all single lines of a nursery rhyme and all 3 phrases (an article+an adjective+a noun) said past the researcher, which demonstrates that they are used to repetition tasks. In few cases, they fifty-fifty repeated the researcher'due south words when not supposed to. Teacher repetition is also of import in FL instruction, as information technology allows for, e.one thousand., students' recognition and practice of a target language item, equally evidenced in the piece of work with Korean preschoolers with minimum EFL skills (Roh and Lee, 2018). Withal, we accepted as right a phrase that consisted of an adjective and a noun only, as approximately one-half of preschoolers who attempted the task either omitted, or distorted an commodity. These omissions might consequence from a negative linguistic transfer (Odlin, 1989; Zybert, 1999), equally pre-schoolers largely ignored articles which do not occur in Shine. Therefore, teachers should concentrate on types of students' FL learning difficulties due to the linguistic transfer, to forbid the occurrence and consolidation of incorrect linguistic habits and increase accuracy (Lewandowska, 2013). In case of differences betwixt L1 languages that accept no determiners, such every bit Polish, and EFL, the teachers should emphasize the use of not-transferable structures and rules, e.g., through always presenting a new word and/or phrase with its highlighted article. The children'due south frequent omission of grammatical morphemes could also be attributed to a transitional developmental stage frequently observed in younger children's first language acquisition and early FL production where sentences are produced in a "telegraphic" form including only (or mostly) content words and no (or few) function words (cf. Carroll, 2008; Fromkin et al., 2011). Information technology would exist interesting to behave a longitudinal report in which the average order of acquisition of English grammatical morphemes in Polish pre-schoolers learning EFL, and its relation to the comparability of respective Polish structures and rules would be examined.

Withal, we constitute that when asked questions about the nursery rhyme, a bulk of preschoolers failed to answer. As the participants repeated more lines than they comprehended, we assume that their phonemic hearing, which allows for sound discrimination, has been developed correctly (Petrus and Bogdanowicz, 2004), and manifested also in discrimination of non-native sounds and their combinations. In early on partial immersion programs, which are advocated in many early education textbooks, children normally develop at first receptive skills (listening comprehension) (Olpińska-Szkiełko, 2015). In futurity projects, we would like to include in the study methods a survey of the teachers teaching arroyo in this respect.

Limitations

The major limitation of our report is the employ of a non-validated measure out for assessing an FL oral skills, due to a lack of bachelor standardized instruments. Nevertheless, when designing the screening tool, we based the questions and tasks on the cadre curriculum for the pre-school. Moreover, we intend to conduct a follow-up study in which the participants will be additionally screened for language-related disabilities.

Decision

Our report produced evidence-based knowledge about the results and the (private and educational activity) variables of learning an FL at pre-school, which is crucial given the current European investments in FL education and expectations most students' achievement, equally the early introduction of (FLs) in kindergarten (…) has expanded in Europe (Cenoz, 2003, p. 77). Nosotros found that in Polish pre-school children, at a pre-literacy level of education, emerging letter of the alphabet identification and phonological awareness, in their L1 were related to the achievements in learning English language as a FL, despite the differences in transparency between the 2 languages. Yeung and Chan (2013) underlined the importance of the L1 phonological awareness in L2 phonological awareness development that is a crucial building block for hereafter reading development (p. 563). Thus, we believe that support strategies for immature learners who neglect to acquire FL skills should include phonological sensation skills in both L1 and FL. We too identified some bug possibly stemming from linguistic transfer, similar manufactures omissions. Therefore, teachers should pay more emphasis to the differences between L1 and FL syntax, morphology, phonetics, phonology, and orthography, to foreclose after consolidation of early errors and promote correct linguistic habits, as focus on vocabulary is probable a necessary but insufficient approach (Lonigan et al., 2008). For instance, young learners should practice full structures and sentences to reinforce right patterns. This could happen if pre-schoolhouse FL instruction, regardless of frequency and intensity of exposure, is implemented in weather condition as similar as possible to L1 acquisition (Olpińska-Szkiełko, 2015), to provide a natural situational and advice context for linguistic interaction. Such methods include: the Narrative Format (Taeschner, 2005; Pirchio et al., 2015), the Accelerative Integrated Method,³ or the Expert Commencement Method for English (Bogdanowicz et al., 2015). A listing of educational tools and useful websites with tips designed for Polish pre-school teachers of EFL, is also provided in a publication by Kondrat (2015). The automatisation of correct linguistic habits in young learners would equip them with skills for their later FL educational success.

Writer Contributions

MŁ designed the written report and the data collection protocol, adult hypotheses, conducted statistical analyses, analyzed and interpreted data. ZS-P collected data equally office of her fulfillment of the M.A. in Psychology. MŁ and ZS-P drafted the manuscript. ML provided disquisitional revisions of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by University of Gdańsk, Social Sciences Kinesthesia, Institute of Psychology.

Disharmonize of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the enquiry was conducted in the absence of any commercial or fiscal relationships that could exist construed equally a potential disharmonize of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to give thanks Ms. Ewa Grzybowska for providing her pictures to apply in the study.

Footnotes

1. ^Total text of the test and data underlying the written report available from the respective author upon request.
2. ^We used two pictures for these tasks: ane. for color repetition and naming, and 2. for naming and counting animals, with the permission of the writer: Ewa Grzybowska.
3. ^https://www.aimlanguagelearning.com/media/

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Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01813/full

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